Graham Greene's assertion in his book The End of the Affair—that "a story has neither beginning nor end; one arbitrarily chooses a moment of experience from which to look forward or backward"—holds much truth. The saga, Companies, Kingdoms & Wars, which has been the most extensive by Satoricha to date, also reaches its conclusion with this writing. However, this is an arbitrary ending, as history is always in a state of creation and transformation, and the effects of what has been narrated in this saga remain relevant.
The Tea Rebellion was discussed in the previous Companies, Kingdoms & Wars installment. It is important to note that this piece continues from the interlude of the two Roberts in the history of tea, specifically focusing on the botanist Robert Fortune. It was noted that Fortune arrived in China at a crucial moment in the sociopolitical context related to tea, as summarized in the first three writings of the saga. However, there was an event that would be discussed until the grand finale. Robert Fortune witnessed the beginning and development of this event and was also at the eye of the storm; any mistake in his mission could have cost him his life.
"IT'S NOT YOU, IT'S ME"
Zexu (n.d.) states that the events in China from 1839 to 1860 shaped what we now know as modern China. In the 19th century, England, France, and the United States fiercely expanded globally, increasing their influence in the West. These three nations were considered the Western powers of the time. In Companies, Kingdoms & Wars, it has been explained how different kingdoms expanded their power through their "companies." This power was characterized not by negotiation but by force, creating the perfect climate for wars. Zexu (n.d.) asserts that, unlike other countries, China resisted the influence of Western powers, although it eventually succumbed to industrialism, mercantilism, and the military prowess of these nations.
Regarding trade, Zexu (n.d.) explains that a single port was established for foreign exchange during the Qing Dynasty: the port of Guangzhou. Moreover, only those with licenses could trade with foreigners. The British were delighted with the tea, silk, and porcelain from the Chinese market, while the Chinese purchased little to nothing from the British, tipping the trade balance in favor of China. The final straw was that all transactions had to be paid in silver. Without a circular trade, China received silver, while the British struggled to obtain it to continue buying, and as seen throughout this saga, the Crown had no room for the word "lose" in its dictionary.
"PSST... WANT SOME?"
Faced with a trade disadvantage with China and the need to pay in silver, the British devised a solution. Zexu (n.d.) notes that while the British purchased silk, the Chinese bought cotton produced in India. The British began to offer another Indian product: opium, used for recreational purposes. This tipped the trade balance in favor of the British. Zexu (n.d.) claims that by the early 19th century, recreational opium use was a trend in China, but this recreation turned into an addiction. Those who stopped smoking opium suffered withdrawal symptoms and even died, prompting the government to ban the production and importation of opium. Years later, in 1813, it was decreed that anyone caught smoking opium would be punished with a hundred lashes.
This meant "losing" for the British. Zexu (n.d.) states that the British East India Company hired private British and American traders to smuggle opium into China. By 1830, there were over 100 Chinese smugglers who, in just four years, dismantled the Crown’s monopoly by lowering prices. Zexu (n.d.) mentions that in just 30 years, China went from importing 4,500 chests of opium to 40,000. This not only caused social harm due to addiction but also resulted in a significant loss of silver for the Chinese empire.
THE FIRST OPIUM WAR
Pletcher (2024) argues that the First Opium War arose as an escalation of the empire's prohibitive measures against the trade and smuggling of opium. It began when the British naval force attacked a blockade on the Zhu Jiang River and sent an expeditionary force to occupy the city of Canton. After long months of negotiation and an offensive by the empire, a fragile peace was achieved with the Treaty of Nanking. This treaty stipulated that China had to compensate England to return Hong Kong to China (which did not happen until years later) and open ports for trade with foreigners. This led other Western countries to seek similar agreements.
THE SECOND OPIUM WAR
Pletcher (2024) mentions that China was overwhelmed by the Taiping Rebellion during this period, which affected its sociopolitical situation. The British Crown, seeking to increase its trade permits in China, created a "theatrical scene" that escalated the conflict in 1856 when imperial officials boarded a British ship and arrested several Chinese crew members, allegedly for lowering the British flag.
This provoked an escalation involving not only the British but also the French, who used the assassination of a French missionary in China in 1856 as a pretext. This led to years of war, land seizures, and cultural imposition in China. An example was the Treaty of the Convention of Peking, which considered previous treaties and granted the British control of the entire southern part of the Kowloon Peninsula up to Hong Kong.
One might think that a conflict like this would end with negotiations to restore normalcy or change things somehow, but the scars remain. The price of greed is so high that today, we continue to pay for it.
The section The Flavor Route will reveal how years of British exploitation have shaped a country to this day. As Karl Marx stated, "Talking and doing are different things, indeed rather antagonistic." We must know history and strive not to repeat the mistakes of our ancestors. Let us be catalysts for positive change.
Until next time!
Satoricha ~
References
Pletcher, K. (2024, June 17). Opium Wars | Definition, Summary, Facts, & Causes. Britannica. Retrieved July 28, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars
Zexu, L. (n.d.). The Opium Wars in China. Asia Pacific Curriculum. Retrieved July 28, 2024, from https://asiapacificcurriculum.ca/learning-module/opium-wars-china
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